2. Really the medicines are Zero-molecular?

The theory that a solution contains finite number of solute molecule was not known during Hahnemann's time, and therefore if the solution is diluted several times a condition may reach where no molecule of the solute remains. Now we know that when the molecular weight of a substance (e.g., sodium chloride, silver nitrate etc.) is expressed in gram, it is called mole, contains a fixed number of molecules (=6.023X10²³). Suppose, 100 ml original tincture was prepared with one mole medicinal substance, therefore, the number of molecules would be 6.023X10²³. One milliliter of such a tincture was dissolved in 99 ml of fresh diluent and succussed well, it would become the first potency solution (1C, or the first centesimal dilution), where the number of molecules would decrease 100 fold (=6.023 X 10 ²¹ ). After the second potentization (2C), the number of molecules would fall into 6.023X10¹⁹. By this way when the solution reaches at eleventh potency (11C), it would be 6.023X10¹. In the next potentization (12C), there would be fractional number of molecule. Hence, practically no molecule of the original remedy would exist in such a solution. How can this solution have any curative power? This was the basic question arisen by the scientific schools to nullify Hahnemann's doctrine. Benveniste was the first man who upraised the polemic by discovering the controversial effect of zero -molecular aqueous dilution of anti- IgE molecules ^{(Davenas et al, 1988)} on staining ability of basophil granules. There are so many theories to explain the effect of zero-molecular dilution on living being, or 'Benveniste affair', which is the basic principle of homeopathy also. All the theories to explain the same along with pharmacodynamic effect (preservation of pharmacological property even in supposedly non-molecular dilution) can be broadly categorized into two broad heads: Non-molecular and Molecular hypotheses:

A) Non-molecular Hypotheses

Some workers postulate that there is no existence of any solute or drug molecule in ultra-high dilutions. The solvent molecules are either energized in ultra high diluted solutions tuned or re-oriented. Hence, the theories can collectively be called solvent type theory. Several workers including Benveniste claimed that non-molecular information travels in the form of electromagnetic wave and application of strong magnetic field might diminish the same ^{(Hadji et al, 1991)} . It was advocated that the diluting solute molecules keep an impact on electronic orbit of hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water, which again imparts effect in biological system, so the theory is called 'Molecular Imprint model'. Still, the theory cannot justify why camphor being a crude substance could nullify the effect of 'Belladonna', and how the medicine could retain its curative power for one year or more. After the rejection of Benveniste's work by the editor of 'Nature' different workers all over the world performed several replicas of the experiments, but they got different gradations of results between success and failure. However, nobody can claim cent percent reproducibility of 'Benveniste affair'. In spite of that, it cannot be denied that the previous existence of drug molecule may bring some alteration of spin of electrons in the outer orbital of hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water molecule. According to String theory we can assume that due to contact between the water and solute molecules, the vibration of strings of outer electron orbitals of solute atoms can transfer similar 'vibratory character' to the 'strings' of electron orbitals of hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water. Hence, transitory 'medicine-like electromagnetic signal' may emerge from water molecules. Some authors ^{(Vithoulkas and Berghian-Grosan (2020) ) .} have emphasized on alteration of spin of electron orbitals of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen or Sulphur atoms. Their hypothesis suggests that in every sudden stress (mental, emotional, or physical) that the organism is subjected to, there is a change in the overall structure of the energy field of the organism. Between the different electromagnetic changes due to pathology that are possibly occurring within the subatomic level, like ionized atoms, change in the number of electrons, change in the number of neutrons, quantum tunneling, quantum entanglement, electron excitons, the most probable and the most direct is a change in the spin of the electrons within one or more atoms on different elements. According to them though it is non-detectable but can be cured by rectifying the same by homeopathic remedy. Yet, we can not fully agree with it, because such effect cannot remain year after years in a medicine of a pharmacy. Moreover, it can hardly explain how the healthy drug can bring symptom in provers.

3. What is the role of alcohol or sugar in potentizing a medicine?

Hahnemann noticed that alcohol has more potentizing capacity than water, can 'prevent spoilage and decomposition' of the medicine ("Organon", 5th ed.Aphorism 123), and he considered it to be a 'vehicle' that carries medicinal power to the diseased tissue better than water. In this section, we will discuss how alcohol can increase efficiency of potentization, sequestrate the drug molecules, acts as shield to prevent cross reaction of the drug molecule with the substances in the body fluid and increase their penetration efficiency as well, so that the drug molecules can enter deep within the cell. Screening of solute molecule, as we have seen in the previous section, by excess number of water molecule than the usual in pure aqueous dilutions due to van der Waals force cannot last for a long time and it may be affected by other forces. Excess water molecules can easily be dislodged due to little agitation, or alteration of earth's magnetic field conferring the highly potentized solution into an ordinary one having no special property. Alcohol has got some special protective property so that such type of spoilage can be avoided.

We came to know from the previous section that loss of homogeneity is very important in potentizing a medicine, which is effective by the fall of dielectric constant of the solution. The addition of ethanol (Dielectric constant =24) to aqueous medium in order to prepare potency causes a further intensive depletion of dielectric constant. Hence, 'critical dilution' would be achieved much earlier than that of pure water ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2003)} . Precipitating ability of alcohol is not a new concept. The method for precipitation of proteins from their aqueous solution by the gradual addition of cold ethanol, as derived by Cohn and Edsall in 1941, is a good example of secondary attainment of non-homogeneity. The positive and negative charges of protein molecules remain separated widely in aqueous medium due to high dielectric constant of water. By the gradual addition of ethanol the attraction between opposite charges within protein molecule increases and they aggregate and precipitate. The concept is true for not only proteins but for all charged molecules, having high molecular weight. Hydrated charged molecules become concentrated at the bottom region of the ethanol solution and if the bound water is removed, the charged molecules become precipitated, nicely implemented in DNA and RNA isolation technique from their solutions. For low molecular substances, or those who are more soluble in ethanol than water, this event does not occur prominently, but there is always a tendency of precipitation. In case of potentization of a homeopathic medicine, the attainment of non-homogeneity is still faster in ethanol because of easier reestablishment of attraction force between opposite charges of drug molecules. Due to special orientation of ethanol molecules during succussion, the hydrated drug molecules would become easily concentrated towards the bottom layer of the solution. That confers it to be a more efficient medium for potentization than that of distilled water, so that the potentization efficiency (=n) of ethanol would be higher than distilled water (vide equation ii), and fluvial concentration in relation to dilution in alcoholic medium would be more hyperbolic (for distilled water, it would be more sigmoid). Ethanol would be able to trap more hydrated drug molecules than water, therefore C_c would increase accordingly. Hence, it is easier to preserve molecularity of drugs in ethanol medium than that of distilled water.

The special orientation of ethanol molecules during potentization can be explained from the concept of micelles and liposome . Ethanol can produce better protective covering around the drug molecule in the following way:

In a crude aqueous extract of the medicinal substance, water molecules form hydration layer around drug molecule (Figure:2A, click here to enlarge). Its positive and negative charges remain wide apart. Addition of ethanol to prepare original tincture of the drug produces a monolayer of the same around hydration layer and it brings the charges closer due to lowering of dielectric constant of the solvent (in case of non-electrolyte, it does not occur). Ethanol, being an amphipathic molecule has a polar hydrophilic (-OH) head and a very short hydrophobic (CH₂-CH₃-) tail. It may be presumed that in the 'mother tincture' (original alcoholic solution) of a medicine it is arranged around hydrated drug molecule like inverted micelles popularly called inverted micelles , as 'water drop in oil' where positive and negative charges of the drug molecule come more closer ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002, 2003)} . This type of inverted micelles are frequently seen in higher alcohols, which due to their large head can accommodate a large number of solute molecules, but due to very small size of ethanol molecules it possibly cannot sequestrate more than one or few solute molecule at a time and for that reason inverted micelles are not observed under ordinary microscope, but when the metallic drugs are observed under electron microscope, nanoparticle, consisting of few number of drug molecules can be seen. This type of micelles might be formed due to hydrophilic interaction between the hydrated layer around the drug molecules and the polar heads of ethanol molecules. More precisely it can be said that the orientation of ethanol molecule can be explained by Niosome , there are liposome like vehicles made by surfactants. The hydrophilic crude drug molecules get shelter into aqueous compartment, hydrophobic molecules in the ethanol bilayer and amphiphilic molecules between aquatic compartment and exterior. Thus the Nanoparticles containing clusters of more than one drug molecules are formed ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2019, )} . (Figure:2B, click here to enlarge) The method of sonication is often used in the mainstream medicinal science to prepare liposome, loaded with drug employing double-tailed phospho-lipid molecules in order to deliver minimum quantity anti-bacterial, anti-tumoral and anti-cancerous drugs to the target tissue. The lipid bilayer is formed due to hydrophobic interaction around the aqueous compartment filled with few drug molecules. As the medicine is used in very small amount it can reduce the side effects. 'Potentization' of homeopathic drug may be explained by the same way. Succussion is comparable to sonication ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002, 2003, 2006)} . Sukul has successfully employed sonication technique in preparing potencies. As we have mentioned above, during succussion, ethanol may form bilayer around hydrated drug molecules, where non-polar tails of both the layers come closer due to hydrophobic interaction. With the increase of potency the number of ethanol molecules, forming protective sheath covering each hydrated drug molecule increases and the capsule becomes more compact due to increase of hydrophobic interaction among the tails of ethanol molecules and van der Waals force among the atoms. With the initial increase of potency ranging from 2, 3, 6, 12 etc. the number of ethanol molecule contributing to enrich the capsule increases steadily, but when it reaches to a saturation point at higher potencies above 30, further incorporation of ethanol molecule to the existing bilayer becomes harder and after 200th potency it is really tough. One has to repeat hundreds of potentizing steps uniformly to include just one or few ethanol molecules to the capsule making it more small and compact. It also contemplates changes of hydrogen bonded network structure of water-ethanol mixture. Hence the alteration of the network, which was experimentally confirmed, is not the cause but the effect of potentization. Higher potentization increases the number of shielding diluent molecules over the surface of drug molecules, so that its penetrating power increases. Hence, the hypothesis of nanoparticle of Chikramane et al in 2010 and 2012 ^{(Chikramane et al, 2010;Chikramane et al, 2012)} corresponds to the idea of drug loaded liposome like ethanol capsule of Chattopadhyay in 2002 and 2003 ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002, 2003)} .

Introduction of sugar of milk (lactose) as a 'carrier' of medicinal power by Hahnemann is of great medicinal importance. When the medicine is poured upon lactose sugar the latter can preserve medicinal property for a long time because being a reducing sugar it contains free aldehyde groups that can bind -OH group of ethanol molecules situated at the outer layer of capsule. Hence, the lactose molecules can act as an absorbent medium of ethanol- encapsulated medicine molecules, so that even single small globule of sugar can transfer medicinal property to the patient's body and stimulate vital reactions. Conversely, sucrose, being a non-reducing sugar do not have free aldehyde group, so it cannot be used for the said purpose. When larger number of lactose globules is introduced, it can bring medicinal symptoms to healthy persons, but remains effect-less when small dose is applied. Therefore, a definite dose-response curve can be obtained. This is not possible in liquid medicine, because there is no definite number of high velocity units of medicine ('capsules') per drop, as we have discussed earlier. Hahnemann being a man of insight has revealed the fact within his mind. For that reason, he preferred to use lactose sugar moistened medicine. Hahnemann has utilized this quasi-compound property of lactose mixture in making solution of the insoluble medicines also. Several insoluble compounds may enter into clear solution stage after 3-4 steps of trituration, and then they can easily be potentized with alcohol. As we use chromatography to trap desirable substance from a highly diluted solution by passing the same through a glass column, packed up with absorbent medium, Hahnemann also has mentioned the same technique in his 6th edition of Organon, while preparing 50-millesimal dilution. There he used a thimble shaped cylindrical glass column packed with sugar globule as an absorbent medium of 'medicinal substance' from highly diluted succussed solution. Now imagine, how talented man he was who can prepare 21st century medicine in 18th century.

In case of dry potentization, where lactose alone is used as diluent medium, the basic principle remains the same, i.e., encapsulation of the drug molecule by the diluent medium and loss of homogeneity. When the medicine molecule gets the chance of contacting increasing number of sugar molecule it becomes packed up, cannot be separated from sugar by any means and homogeneity is lost even much earlier than liquid potentization. Sugar-coated medicine molecules form nanoparticles and show tendency of clustered distribution throughout the entire mixture as numerous clumps and their number does not decrease proportionally while triturating with fresh sugar. Moreover, like a quasi-compound the medicine cannot be separated easily from lactose. Similar observations of the formation of nanoclusters were made in trituration studies ^{(Chikramane et al, 2012)} of lactose with zinc dust (325 mesh, around 44 micron particles). The zinc nanoclusters indicate the formation of 10-20 nm zinc nanoparticles. The formation of nanoparticles from the larger particles highlights the importance of the trituration process in the generation of the nano fraction. The generation of nanoclusters as evident from the TEM analyses. Lactose aids in preventing the aggregation of the nanometer-sized particles formed during the grinding process, thereby effectively segregating the nanofraction from the coarser particles in the subsequent dilution steps.

It might be concluded that fall of dielectric constant of the diluent medium by gradual addition of ethanol and succussion causes loss of homogeneity and formation of nanoparticles. With the increase of potency, the number of solvent or diluent molecules (alcohol) covering the hydrated drug molecules (nanoparticles) increases forming a special type of orientation, which may act as a protective shield around the same. This type of nanomolecular structures are able to stuck up with sugar globule, the latter can thus act as 'carrier' of medicinal property. Moreover, when a drug is repeatedly triturated with sugar, it becomes so inseparably mixed with the same that it can reach the affected tissue by baffling the antagonistic physiological response. Alteration of hydrogen bonded network in homeopathic drug is not the cause of drug action but merely the effect of altered orientation of solvent molecules.

4. How do Homeopathic and Allopathic drugs differ in their mechanistic pathway?

We have seen in the earlier sections that homeopathic medicines, even far above Avogadro's limit of dilution, contain traces of original drug material. A relevant question may arise. How does such a vanishingly minute quantity of medicine can produce symptoms on 'Provers' and cure the patient as well? The cause of developing proving symptoms by highly diluted homeopathic medicines seems to be due to their penetration ability. Hahnemann seems to be overwhelmed by seeing the penetrating ability of homeopathic drugs. He has written a little to explain the mechanism of penetration of drugs on different organs of the body as follows: 'The homeopathic healing art develops from the spirit-like medicine-forces of the crude substances. By means of then untried treatment peculiar to that to a formerly unheard-of degree whereby they all only then become quite penetratingly efficacious and remedial, even those that in the crude state give no evidence of the slightest medicinal power on the human body' ("Organon", 5th ed Aphorism 269). He believed that higher potency medicines have more rapid penetration capacity than the lower potencies ("Organon", 5th ed Aphorism 287 footnote).

In spite of negligible quantity of original drug, the potentized medicines enjoy greater penetration ability due to achievement of compactness of ethanol capsule in higher potencies to develop proving symptoms over healthy individuals and cure the same in patients. Moreover, with the increase of dilution the compact capsules become speedier. The more compactness the capsule achieves it gets more easy entry to the diseased tissue while moving through liquid connection within minutest capillaries. The ethanol molecules pack the hydrated drug molecule so tightly that no biological process can peel the ethanol bilayer away from the hydrated drug even it can pass unaffected through the road to digestion. Actually, the encapsulated medicines move so fast that no specific channel is required except humor or body fluid, through which it penetrates the target tissue and binds the target enzyme . Medicines prepared with lactose also enjoy greater penetration ability. It is a general tendency of the weak or mutant diseased cells including that of cancerous ones to consume sugar molecules voraciously. When the sugar globules moistened with medicine or the medicine itself is triturated with sugar the molecules remain attached inseparably with the same, like that of a compound of sugar. When the same is administered in empty stomach, it would get an opportunity to enter into the affected tissue. It can bind with minute enzyme ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002)} inside the cell. There are several examples of receptors of that category. Effect of homeopathic drugs in modulating enzyme activity was observed by several workers ^{(Sukul et al, 2002)} . Hence, the biomolecules directly or indirectly influenced by homeopathic drugs are nothing but sub-cellular enzymes. The drugs might affect several other molecules involved in metabolism, like DNA, RNA, carbohydrate, fat, hormones, or any other compound. Nevertheless, what is the superiority of these enzymes? This is because the enzymes are the only species of biomolecules that has highly sensitive reversible binding sites for specific substrates and gets affected at once when the same site is competitively preoccupied by a minute inhibitor , which most homeopathic drugs possess. As for example, 'Thea' and 'Coffea' prepared from tea (leafs) and coffee (fruits) contain theophylline and caffeine respectively. Among the known enzymes, phosphodiesterase is one, which binds both the alkaloids , becomes inhibited by the same. Another drug 'Physostigma' prepared from a plant, Calabar bean (Physostigma veneosum), contains eserine (also called physostigmine), which blocks a known enzyme acetylcholinesterase, and it can constrict the pupils. "Chelidonium" contains an alkaloid Chelidonine, which is a competitive inhibitor of Cytochrome P450 3A4 (EC 1.14. 13.97), an important enzyme in the body mainly found in the liver. Noticeably, in the mainstream medicine several intermediate metabolites of a biochemical reaction have been discovered by applying enzyme inhibitors. In a tissue extract when an inhibitor of a particular enzyme is applied, the intermediate metabolites become accumulated. By the combination of this technique the steps of glucose breakdown has been identified. In human body, numerous enzymes are interconnected like a network, and artificial inhibition of any, even the minutest one can produce specific combination of symptoms due to accumulation of some metabolites and deficiency of others. Moreover, the same enzyme molecule can function repeatedly in a cell after reversible binding of the inhibitor, so that duration of activity of homeopathic drugs upon 'Provers' may last for weeks. We would have to remember that the enzymes or any other protein factors responsive to homeopathic drugs are ultra-minute. One can isolate just 1 mg thyrotropin releasing hormone (a peptide) from 4 tones of hypothalamic tissue of goat brain from the slaughterhouse, where thousands of goats would require to be sacrificed. Now imagine the minuteness of that protein factors that are engaged in controlling its synthesis. These minutest species of protein factors reside in the nucleus or very near to the same, but the larger proteins or functional enzymes, regulated by the same generally remain restricted near the periphery of the cells. In several cases, it was observed that substrate of an enzyme even in a very minute concentration can activate the minute protein factors that regulates its synthesis. Hence, the substrate-like competitive inhibitor in a very minute concentration if it is able to reach the target can inhibit the said factor and can bring symptoms to the healthy person or 'Prover'.

According to the suggested hypothesis , ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002, 2003, 2006)} the ultimate cause of any of the chronic disease was deficiency or mutation of one or few minutest enzymes far upstream than the known protein that manifests up or down-regulation. As the protein profile of the entire breast cancer patient is not identical, the minutest deficient protein factor also might be different. Stimulation of the same, specific for individual patient is curative. Either any of the drug ingredients influences such an up-regulatory transcription factor of CDK inhibitor protein and stimulates the same, or the ingredient modulates the down-regulatory transcription factor of phosphorylated Retinoblastoma (Rb) and activates the same. It either may stimulate the synthesis of anti-cancer antibodies or activates the natural killer cells to destroy the tumor. Direct deduction could not be drawn so far due to ultra-minuteness of the enzymes involved in regulating cell cycle and non-detectable nature of homeopathic drug ingredients, when ultra-diluted. Had the experiments mentioned above were performed with crude radio-labeled drug extracts, the minute enzyme that binds the same might have been revealed to some extent. In spite of that, there are adequate examples of specific binding of alkaloids, minerals, and heavy metals with functional enzymes or receptors, most of them have already been used as homeopathic drugs. Dimethylamino azo benzene (found in azo dye) and phenobarbital can induce liver carcinogenesis of mice. It has undoubtedly been proved that transcription factors might be induced by some psychotropic drugs ^{(Zygmunt et al, 2019) .} or by mild stress ^{(Milik et al, 2016) .}. While studying the protective effect homeopathic drugs over synergistic effect of these carcinogens taking two potencies of 'Chelidonium' Biswas and Khuda-Bukhsh ^{(Biswas and Khuda-Bukhsh, 2002)} observed that initially there was an inhibition to lipid peroxidase enzyme activity as the 'primary effect' (within 60 days) and finally there was stimulation of the same as the 'secondary effect' (at 90 and 120 days of exposure), indicating an onset of defense mechanism against carcinogenesis. Acid and alkaline phosphatase activities also showed similar effect. Other parameters of carcinogenesis, like increase of mitotic indices, chromosome aberration, appearance of micronuclei etc. also showed ameliorating trend by the said medicine. Hence, Khuda-Bukhsh ^{(Khuda-Bukhsh, 2003)} has given emphasis on transcription factor(s), which being the minutest limiting factor of human health might directly or indirectly be modulated by micro-doses of homeopathic drugs. Some evidences were found in favor of the said hypotheses. As for example, homeopathic drug 'Arnica' prepared from a plant Arnica montana possesses an alkaloid helenalin. The main action of helenalin is the inhibition of a transcription factor NFκβ ^{(Klaas et al, 2002)}, similarly to corticoid steroids. Hence, the said medicine might have some stimulatory effect over the said factor in preventing hemorrhage by the expression of genes. Likewise, Arsenic binding transcription factor Yap8p has also been detected ^{(Ilina et al, 2008 )}. Homeopathic drug 'Arsenicum album' might have a stimulatory effect over the said transcription factor. It has recently been observed that the medicine "Arsenic album 30" is a good medicine and preventive for Corona, because some proving symptoms of the medicine nicely matches with most Corona patients. It indicates that the same transcription factor(s) is affected by the pathogen as well as by the medicine. However, this medicine is not effective to all the patients. Some others are to be treated by "Aconite", "Belladona", "Bryonia", "Nux vomica", "Podophylum", "Aspidosperma" or "Vanedium" according to symptoms. In any case keen observation of Oxygen saturation percentage in blood, whether it is dropping below 95 is necessary. In such case, oxygen support will be essential. If the condition of the patient is still not improved he should immediately be hospitalized. This is because Corona is not a natural disease, but a manmade disease. Hence, there are certain limitations of homeopathic treatment. Severe COVID-19 may be driven by an overreaction of their immune systems against the infection where the body starts to attack its own cells and tissues, rather than the virus itself. This abnormal immune response to the infection is called "cytokine storm", which is one of the fueling agents of COVID-19. The Cytokines are small soluble molecules or proteins released by the immune system in response to an infection that act as messengers for the immune system. As they attract immune cells to counter the infection, which can be of any kind, cytokines trigger inflammation,even may cause death of the patients. Hence, if we are able to characterize all the transcription factors and enzymes affected by Corona virus, based on highest affinity to the medicinal ingredients by autoradiographic method, as mentioned above, cure from any deadly or chronic disease would be possible by homeopathic means, but it is very difficult to achieve at this state of science. Inability to undergo apoptosis is an important factor in the development and progression of prostate cancer. Homeopathic treatments by 'Conium maculatum', 'Sabal serrulata', 'Thuja occidentalis', and a MAT-LyLu Carcinosin nosode ^{(Thangapazham et al, 2006)} on the expression of cytokines and genes that regulate apoptosis was observed. They produced anticancer effects in Copenhagen rats in reducing tumor incidence, tumor growth, and metastasis. There were no significant changes in mRNA levels of the apoptotic genes bax, bcl-2, bcl-x, caspase-1, caspase-2, caspase-3, Fas, FasL, or the cytokines interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-beta, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-alpha, IL-2, and interferon-gamma in prostate tumor and lung metastasis after treatment with homeopathic medicines. The possible mechanisms for these effects include regulation of apoptotic genes and cytokines in the prostate tumors of the said animal. In another study ^{(Bigagli et al, 2014)} it was found that homeopathic medicine 'Apis mellifica' modifies gene expression in human cells and has inhibitory effects on regulatory processes of inflammation; in addition, extremely diluted dynamized dilutions (3C, 5C and 7C) still exert significant effects on 5 selected candidate genes (IL1ß, CD46, ATF1, UBE2Q2 and MT1X) in RWPE-1 cell line (human immortalized prostate epithelial cells) involved in inflammation and oxidative stress.

When the highly diluted medicine is applied to human body it moves within body fluid in an enormous speed and it strikes the lipid bilayer of plasma membrane of the cell so that the bilayer undergoes ' flip-flop ' transition (Figure:3, click here to enlarge), hence entry of drug molecules to the 'interior' of a cell, even up to nucleus is possible. The encapsulated drug molecule has to traverse several lipid bilayers before entering the 'specific compartment', made by the membrane system of the cell, where the target enzyme resides. The lipid layers in each case snatch away some ethanol molecules; consequently the capsule is rendered breakable in course. Ultimately, after reaching 'specific compartment', the capsule disappears and the drug molecule binds with minute target enzyme (and/or the transcription factors that enhances its synthesis). For that reason, higher potencies would be required if the medicine has to travel a long distance through smaller capillaries to the target tissue, e.g., skin, than the visceral organs like stomach, liver and lung. On the other hand, if the medicines were required to be directly applied over the eruptions, e.g., for skin diseases, very low potency or even 'Mother Tincture' would be effective. If the medicine is used at right potency it becomes 'penetratingly efficacious'. In case it is used in lower potency than required, it would not be able to reach 'specific compartment'. Administering the same in higher potency than need would be more penetrating but would also fail to give expected result, because it would not be able to shed its tightly packed ethanol bilayer while reaching at the 'specific compartment'. For allopathic drugs the pathological symptoms are much emphasized, while for higher potency drugs concomitant or non-pathological ones in physical as well as mental sphere should be considered, because it works much upstream than the latter. The bulky metabolic enzymes remain in the exterior of a cell, so crude drug is applicable, while the transcription factor and other controlling enzymes generally remain in the interior of a cell, so highly potentized medicine is applicable. In this aspect allopathic drugs differ much from homeopathic ones. During Hahnemann's epoch allopathy was merely an effectological approach of treatment, but in modern system of allopathy subjective knowledge about pathology to treat a disease is essential, because medicines are prescribed based on disease causing agent or pathological symptoms. However, it is required but not essential in homeopathy, because root cause of disease (actually unknown protein factor sensitive to a particular medicine) is indirectly identified in terms of medicine, based on mainly non-pathological medicinal symptoms when it is applied in high dose upon a healthy person. Large number of medicinal symptoms automatically focuses upon the responsive protein factor that is affected by the said medicine. Hence, homeopathic medicines are sometimes applicable in unknown diseases even.

Now we can differentiate 'dilution' and 'potency' in the following way: we know that entrance of sodium chloride into the cell is very much restricted by ionic channels, therefore, highly diluted application of the same in crude form cannot induce any ailment upon a healthy person. However, when it is applied in potentized form as the medicine 'Natrum mur' such channels cannot affect its mobility. It can directly enter into the cell even up to nucleus and can bring symptoms in healthy persons after binding with minute enzymes and cures the patient as well. Likewise, several medicines are prepared from toxic substances. If they are not potentized might be inactivated by detoxification system of the body so that medicinal power would be lost. Likewise, minute concentration of an alkaloid from plant, an allergic peptide or protein from animal, a mineral, a heavy metal, and an antigen, even a small fragment of viral or bacterial DNA after 'potentization' can induce 'proving symptoms' and all of them can be introduced as homeopathic medicine ingredients. As we use vehicles to reach safely to our office, the minute drug molecules, coated by ethanol, reach to their 'working places', i.e., 'specific compartments' of diseased cells. The drug must have similarity with the substrate of minute enzymes, so that after reaching the interior-most part of a cell it competitively binds and inhibits the same. By this way the said agent can indirectly influence the minute enzymes, which can control synthesis rate of specific biochemical products or directly does the same, so that 'proving symptoms' can be induced even in a 200 potency drug when applied in a higher dose to a healthy person. The patient suffering from the same combination of symptoms indicates that the same minute enzyme was originally deficient ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002, 2003, 2006)} or mutant. This is because the said enzyme may act as limiting factor for synthesis of several other enzymes and their deficiency can indirectly be identified by combination of symptoms. Hence, the 'prime cause' of symptoms for patient and 'Prover' is identical. In ideal case, it successfully binds the 'optimal fraction' of the deficient enzyme ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2002 )} , say 1/100th part of the same, the disease becomes slightly aggravated for few days. It means 'simillimum' has been achieved and it would be followed by 'gentle cure' in course. Similarity of symptoms between patient and 'Prover' is thus curative. Hence, theory of 'similia similibus curantur' is thoroughly justified. In case of 'Prover', the medicinal dose is very high, so that it affects enzymes or transcription factor much higher than 'optimal fraction'. There is a difference between dilution and dose as follows: In case the medicine is applied to the patient in the right dilution (represented by potency), but in a much higher dose than required, it would inhibit the target enzyme much greater than 'optimal fraction'; hence, there would be intolerable aggravation of symptoms, as Hahnemann has said. Here the patient himself would act as 'Prover' and he would have to stop the medicine immediately, and apply antidote of the said medicine, if required. As for example, 'Nux vomica' is an antidote of 'Bryonia', and 'Belladonna' is an antidote of 'Aconite'. Thus, the medicinal symptoms may be ameliorated by the application of the antidote.

Unlike antigen-antibody reaction that occurs in blood, the minute enzymes and transcription factors remain veiled within the core of the diseased cells beyond the reach of crude drugs. It may be resolved that in higher potencies the drug molecules also remain protected within the capsule of solvent. So they, being unaffected by physiological reactions, get an opportunity to reach the inner chambers of the cell and modulate minute enzyme or even transcription factors to arouse medicinal symptoms in healthy persons. Minute dose of the same cures the patients suffering from similar symptoms. The similarity of symptoms between prover and patients at the minutest level by the application of a particular medicine indicates that the same enzyme or transcription factor (may be minutest and unknown) is the cause of symptoms in both. The said enzyme should be considered as the target of homeopathic medicine.

Homeopathic medicines, according to the modern explanations as described in the earlier sections, contain very minute amount of medicine molecules itself as 'nanoparticles' or 'encapsulated molecules' that can stimulate the minute regulatory protein factors, much upstream in the synthetic pathway of the responsible enzymes. When the said factor is stimulated the medicine is not required to apply throughout the life. One interesting observation should be clarified here. Several practitioners of homeopathy have experienced that for acute diseases the suitable remedy can function immediately. Then how it is able to stimulate the process of transcription so quickly? The answer is that: transcription in several places of biological system occurs in lightning speed, but the exact mechanism of the same was not even been properly explained. As for example, the complete embryogenesis in some carps occurs within 18-24 hours. Then why a medicine would not be able to show its action within 1-2 hours?

Before going to the mechanistic pathway of cure we should have a detail knowledge over the root cause of 'familial' or genetic diseases, acceptable by any stream of medicinal science. The ultimate cause of all human genetic diseases remains concealed within the genome. Molecular basis of the same is DNA. Synthesis of mRNA occurs by copying DNA, as a template (with the help of an enzyme RNA Polymerase II ). As the information written within DNA in the language of base sequence is copied in the same language into mRNA, it is called Transcription , which occurs in the nucleus. As because the information stored within mRNA in the language of base sequence is converted to different language in ribosomes, indicated by amino acid sequence of protein or enzymes, it is called translation . The rate of transcription is controlled by different transcription factors , also called regulatory proteins . These are of two types- activator and repressor , which control increase and decrease of enzyme synthesis respectively. The former is synthesized from positive regulator and the latter is from negative regulator element of DNA. Likewise, the operator element , to which the transcription factors bind is of two types- enhancer and silencer . Activator protein, synthesized from positive regulator, binds with enhancer sequence, in most cases it corresponds to promoter of DNA, which binds RNA Polymerase II, responsible for transcription. Likewise, repressor protein, synthesized from negative regulator, binds with silencer sequence. In case of the activator, when substrate of the beneficial enzyme is available in the cell it binds with enhancer element and enhances binding of RNA Polymerase II with promoter element of DNA molecule and facilitates synthesis of functional enzymes in healthy individuals. On the other hand, when the deleterious products are synthesized beyond a threshold level, it can sufficiently bind and activate the repressor that in turn becomes attached with silencer element, preventing the binding of RNA polymerase II anymore with the promoter region. Consequently, the deleterious enzymes cannot be over-synthesized. Enhancer DNA sequence, therefore has the opposite function to that of silencer. According to some workers ^{(Chattopadhyay, 2003)} the deficient transcription factors might be the target of homeopathic drugs.

Now, let us discuss what happens in a diseased individual and how we can cure the same (it is not possible when the mutation of the functional protein itself is involved). Diseases of human being are mainly caused by deficiency of some useful metabolites or overflow of some deleterious metabolites. In a natural dynamic chronic disease, which has natural aggravation and amelioration cycle, initially, there is no significant abnormality in the functional gene, but due to some mutation at minute level, there is deficiency of some transcription factors, which may cause two types of diseases: Type-(i): deficiency of a useful metabolite, or Type-(ii): abundance of a deleterious one.

In both the cases, deficiency (or down-regulation due to small mutation in their regulator element) of activator and repressor are the root causes. Therefore, the said transcription factors, much upstream to the known enzymes, are responsible for both the cases. As the said factors are located much upstream than enzymes of usual metabolic pathway, malfunction of any can be reflected into several cell functions disturbances and the symptoms apparently non- related to the pathological symptoms may appear as concomitant symptoms (e.g., excessive thirst, irritability etc.) and modalities (e.g., inexplicable aggravation of the disease in little walking, noise etc.). If the 'prover' has got the same combination of symptoms, it is apparent that the same transcription factor has been affected, no matter what the pathological symptoms are. They might be treated without subjective knowledge of the pathological symptoms. On the other hand, the mainstream allopathic medicine can never be applied without subjective knowledge on pathological symptoms, especially in case of an unknown disease. The mechanistic pathway of homeopathic drug is as follows:

A) Treatment of Disease caused due to deficiency of a useful metabolite

In case of deficiency syndrome (Type-i), malfunction, malsynthesis or mutation of the activator protein synthesized from positive regulator of the same, causing down-regulation , so that the synthesis of a particular beneficial enzyme is decreased, (Figure:4, click here to enlarge) because sensitivity of the activator to the inducer (here substrate of the responsive enzyme) is decreased (down-regulated) due to either minute mutation of the activator indicating slow binding rate towards the inducer, or its low synthesis rate or due to less expression of the receptor for inducer molecules; so that the enzyme is synthesized less and the body becomes deficient of some beneficial products. Hence, disease symptoms may appear. As the homeopathic drugs, due to their minuteness cannot directly show its impact on bulky functional enzymes, but inhibits these activators directly or indirectly, so they fall short or partially inactivated, which causes further depletion of functional enzyme and slight Aggravation of symptom of patient occurs. Thus, it can create a stress, so that it can be called 'stressor', which later stimulates the synthesis of beneficial enzymes in living cells up to its requirement either by multiplying small competent DNA segments or by division of the competent cell line that can compensate the loss. Stimulation of these minutest deficient regulatory proteins causes synthesis of more activator molecules to bind with enhancer element of DNA, which causes more synthesis of deficient enzyme, in any case, causes Amelioration (cure). Homeopathic drug "Chelidonium" contains an alkaloid Chelidonine, which is a competitive inhibitor of Cytochrome P450 3A4. (abbreviated CYP3A4) (EC 1.14. 13.97) is an important enzyme in the body, mainly found in the liver and in the intestine. When we apply "Chelidonium" in low potency it inhibits the said enzyme, when we use higher potency it inhibits the transcription factor. Protective effect of minute dose drugs in transcriptional level, i.e., during the formation of mRNA from DNA, has been proved by in vitro study also ^{( Ovelgonne et al, 1995; Van Wijk et al, 1994;Wiegant et al, 1997)} . When a stress, either environmental (e.g., heat), or pathogenetic (e.g., bacteria) or toxicological (e.g., arsenic, cadmium etc.), is applied upon culture cells, their physiological process become disordered, causing cell damage and cell death. A low dose of the same damaging agents produces some protective proteins (e.g. heat-shock proteins) that increase cellular tolerance. Thus by the application of low dose of the same damaging agents (viz. "stressors") exert a stimulatory action ^{(Ovelgonne et al, 1995)} on cell culture; it protects them from harmful exposures of same stress. Hence, the reaction to the stress might be stronger than its action, which may lead to self-recovery. The inhibitor present in homeopathic medicine should, most possibly, be similar or semantic to the substrate of the functional enzyme, so that it may competitively bind and inactivate the same or its activator protein, like a ligand and can manifest deficiency syndrome in healthy individual during 'proving' experiment.

Allopathic medicines, on the other hand, would supplement the product or similar substance of the afflicted enzyme. As for example, in Parkinson's disease , a neurodegenerative syndrome caused by a defect in dopamine synthesizing pathway, dopamine (dihydroxy phenylalanine amine) is supplemented as drug to suppress the disease. In some cases, slow but minute application of L-dopa, an immediate precursor (substrate) of dopamine, like that of homeopathic drug, was found very effective. Moreover, very low potencies of dopa are effectively used as homeopathic medicine for the said disease. Similarly, in hypothyroidism patients, a kind of synthetic thyroxin (an iodine containing hormone) is supplemented as allopathic medicine, but when treated by homeopathy, different types of iodine containing medicines like 'Iodum', 'Kali iod' etc. are used to stimulate the biosynthetic pathway of thyroxin. In most cases, the lower potency homeopathic medicines are selected based on induced pathological symptoms, which are just opposite to allopathic drugs . However, such kind of interrelationship can rarely be sorted out between allopathic and higher potency homeopathic medicines, because the latter act much more upstream than the former to the enzymes, which are directly responsible for the pathological symptoms. Therefore, larger number of concomitant symptoms indicating mental attributes, in addition to few pathological complaints should be counted before the final selection of remedy.

5. Why 'Homeopathy' and 'Allopathy' are called parallel branches of medical science?

Hahnemann has said that homeopathy is the new school of medicine while Allopathy is the old one. It is often said that Homeopathy is the opposite (parallel) method of treatment to that of Allopathy . Both homeopathy and allopathic method intend to give relief to a particular patient by following definite and discrete principles: Homeopathy cures by 'similia similibus curantur' (like cures like) principle of Hahnemann of nineteenth century, while allopathy by 'contraria contrariis curantur' (opposite cures opposite) logic of Galen of seventeenth century, but they are not both sides of the same coin. We have observed that all the patient suffering from a particular disease, say headache, are not curable by the same homeopathic drug. This is because Cause, Onset, Location, Sensation, Concomitant, Aggravation and Amelioration of the disease may be different in different groups of patients. So that different drugs are applied in different patient. As for example, headache caused by exposure to sun, sudden and violent onset, location at right side of forehead, sensation of throbbing pain, concomitant of red face, often with pain of eyeballs, aggravation from slight motion, amelioration by tight bandage is an indication of 'Belladonna'. On the other hand, headache in drunkards, caused by high blood pressure, slow onset, left sided headache (located at left), sensation as all blood has gone to head, sensation of bursting pain, aggravation from motion, after sleep and amelioration by menstrual flow is an indication of homeopathic drug 'Lachesis'. Therefore, we cannot make a patent of homeopathic drug. This is because the minute regulatory proteins located much upstream of a metabolic pathway and can act as limiting factors of a large number of functional enzymes much downstream and can produce some pathological as well as some non-pathological symptoms. The latter apparently has no direct relation with the disease proper but can act as a cause to bring peculiar nature of Onset, Location, Sensation, Concomitant symptoms, and modalities (Aggravation and Amelioration) in different patients who are suffering from deficiency of different factors. It can be understood by the mode of functioning of hormones and enzymes. Hormones are generally located much upstream than enzymes, so their deficiency brings much more symptoms than the latter. These symptoms also help us to locate responsive endocrine glands. If we use inhibitors of these hormones, several symptoms may grow in long run. In 'Proving' experiments the many peculiar symptoms are artificially induced in healthy persons indicating the character of medicines. Peculiarity in Cause, Onset, Location, Sensation, Concomitant, Aggravation and Amelioration of the disease in patients and their similarity with 'proving symptoms' by the same way helps us to identify the responsive minute protein factor in terms of medicine as discussed in the text. Conversely, the same allopathic drug can 'act upon' almost all the headache patients; as for example, Aspirin can give temporary relief to almost all such patients; so that we can make its patent. Therefore, Allopathy is a disease specific method of treatment. We shall now discuss the ultimate difference between the two systems as evident from the previous sections.

A simple observation can prove that allopathy is a suppressive method of treatment but homeopathy is a stimulatory one. Application of an allopathic medicine on healthy person brings symptoms opposite to the disease it cures, because the medicines are stress removers. Homeopathy, on the other hand, brings symptoms similar to disease it cures, because the medicines are 'stressors'. When an allopathic medicine is applied to a healthy person, the symptoms opposite to the disease are generated. As for example, an allopathic drug, which is suitable for high blood pressure patient would remarkably decrease the blood pressure of a healthy person. Hence, it is a suppressive method. Homeopathic medicines, conversely, can produce symptoms to the healthy person, similar to the disease, so it is a stimulatory method of treatment. For instance, sulfur is directly used as allopathic medicine to cure skin diseases, but homeopathic drug 'Sulphur' removes the diseases created by allopathic application of sulfur, therefore skin disease, suppressed by the former sometimes recurs for few days before the final recovery. The curative power of Peruvian bark (Cinchona) in treating marsh-ague (Malaria) in allopathy and curing medicine related symptoms in homeopathy is another example. From the beginning, there was a confrontation between existing 'old school' of medical system ('allopathy') and homeopathy. Allopathic system were deluded with almost instantaneous amelioration ("Organon", 6th ed Aphorism 56), which was just opposite to homeopathic principles. Hahnemann regretted that this 'old school' of medicine does not try to find out 'prima causa morbi', i.e., the hidden root-cause behind morbid symptoms ("Organon", 5th ed. Aphorism 6, footnote), hence he termed allopathy as a 'non-healing art', as it renders simple diseaseAphorism into a chronic and incurable one ("Organon", 5th ed. Aphorism 75). Modern form of allopathic system suggests that malfunction or malsynthesis of particular enzymes, guided by genes, is the 'root cause' of almost all chronic diseases, but the mode of its treatment by suppressing the disease symptoms has not changed much since Hahnemann's time. It gives a very little emphasis to arouse the internal mechanism of human body or any other organism, unlike that of inanimate ones, to fight against diseases. We should never forget that human body is like complicated auto-recoverable machine. Therefore, the mechanism of cure of almost all the chronic diseases remains hidden within that machine itself. Homeopathic medicines, being similar to the disease causing factors, actually intend to stimulate the curative factors, which definitely subsides the disease causing agents. Thus the homeopathic medicine shows aggravation as 'primary effect' and amelioration as 'secondary effect'. The allopathic medicines counter the disease- causing factors directly. As a result, the 'primary effect' of an allopathic drug always ameliorates, while 'secondary effect' aggravates. Therefore, most allopathic drugs are used lifelong for chronic diseases, notwithstanding the risk of side effects and 'wearing effect' i.e., loss of efficacy in long run. In case any homeopathic medicine causes slight amelioration of a chronic disease at the beginning, we should think that it is 'more allopathic' than homeopathic, and the remedy has not been properly selected. In long run, it would aggravate the disease, as suggested by Hahnemann also. This is because; it is trying to suppress the symptoms by inhibiting the disease causing agents. In most cases, these are related to malfunction of some functional enzymes, gene products, or caused by some parasites, pollutants or other external factors. Even when the said enzymes are extracted from human body (cell-free system) they are affected by allopathic drugs. On the other hand, homeopathic medicine seems to function much upstream to that of functional enzymes. Hence, the effect of such medicine cannot be demonstrated in cell-free system, like that of an allopathic drug, which directly acts upon functional enzymes. Many says that homeopathic drugs have no effect because these are non-reproducible. This question does not arise in allopathic drug, because it is applied in a larger dose that can suppress a known deleterious enzyme or any other protein factor, even outside patient's body and terminates the synthesis of offensive products.

From the above discussion, it can be inferred that homeopathic drugs have more penetrating ability than allopathic ones. As a general rule deficiency of beneficial metabolites, as well as abundance of deleterious product, both may be caused by deficit of minutest regulatory proteins. Hence, deficiency of the same is the limiting factor for all natural chronic diseases. Hahnemann's 'law of minimum' is applicable for homeopathic drugs. On the other hand, Allopathic drugs always consider the 'law of maximum'. Therefore, the approach of homeopathic and allopathic drugs is just opposite (Table 1) . Each homeopathic medicine is applicable to minimum number of patients suffering from a particular disease, based on minimal pathological complaints, but many concomitant symptoms and semantic to the stress of deleterious metabolites. It not only administers minimum quantity drugs, but indirectly considers the minutest proteins as limiting factors that are minimally available in the patient's body, but have controlling influence over the bulky functional enzymes. These seem to be nothing but minute enzymes or transcription factors, having influence over the overall metabolism. Allopathy, on the other hand, treats the symptoms, which is maximally available among the diseased individuals, and antagonistic to the stress of deleterious metabolites. Each drug is applicable to maximum number of patients suffering from a particular disease where maximal pathological complaints match, with less emphasis on concomitant ones.

In the previous section we have seen that, for deficiency syndrome of a beneficial enzyme, homeopathic drug is similar to its substrate, but allopathic drug acts like its product. Conversely, for abundance syndrome of a deleterious enzyme, homeopathic drug is similar to its product and allopathic drug mimics its substrate. We have observed in lower organism like bacteria, that minute quantity of substrate or product of an enzyme (or similar other substance) can trigger regulatory pathway, but it is not always seen in higher animals, because the ultimate regulatory gene is located much upstream to the functional enzymes. Hence, the difference between allopathic and homeopathic medicine cannot be established by 'substrate-product relationship', but it lies only in opposite mode of action. Thus, the allopathic drugs are never 'stressors' like that of homeopathic ones, but 'stress-removers'. Although, initially they remove the stress, but finally, in course of further application, the disease symptoms become worse, because there is no urge left within the cell to get rid of the stress. Hence, the genetic or familial diseases in most cases remains incurable by allopathy, but to some extent curable by homeopathy.

It is an interesting fact that allopathic doctors does not always follow allopathic principles and some homeopathic doctors do not purely follow homeopathic principle. Allopathy, the mainstream medicines, are actually a generalized mode of treatment and applicable to all the patients suffering from the same ailments. Hence, no individualization is required. However, individualistic treatment has recently been incorporated in the mainstream medicinal science (will be discussed later).

Supplementation of vitamin and mineral has been included in both the system of medicine, but homeopathic practitioners generally do not encourage medicinal application of vitamins. Most functional enzymes require a small concentration of mineral salts of Na, K, Fe, Mg, and Ca for their activity. If they become congenitally deficient in particular tissues due to unavailability of utilizing enzymes, it can also produce serious disease. There is no difference in opinion in compensating the same between the two disciplines of medicine, but the way of administration differs. If they are compensated in higher dose, as in allopathic drugs, the tissues cannot hold the same and they are eliminated from the body as sweat, urine, and stool. If they are gradually compensated in dry potentized form with lactose, they can be stored within the body. This is the basic principle of biochemic system of medicine, according to many it is a sister branch of homeopathy, discovered by Schussler , where deficiency symptom of twelve mineral salts on healthy person instead of 'proving symptoms' was considered in suggesting remedies.

Homeopathic doctors generally record the symptoms from each patient minutely, yet some condition may appear when individual symptoms from each patients cannot be recorded by any means. In order to combat against highly contagious diseases like smallpox, a principle was suggested by Master Hahnemann called 'Genus Epidemicus'. He has directed to treat them according to the said principle for each particular locality. The doctors should record 5 to 6 prime symptoms from few patients that are peculiar and different from pathological symptoms. Then he would select a medicine accordingly and apply to all the patients like that of allopathic practitioners. There would be a high chance of recovery. This is because in that particular locality there is a possibility that all the individuals were affected from the same strain of that virus (i.e., 'Contagious Principle' is the same). As cause is very important in selecting remedy for homeopathy. Therefore even few concomitant symptoms can rightly suggest the remedy. For the treatment of Corona it is highly applicable, though it is very difficult to screen out the most peculiar symptoms.

Yet, in a broader sense, the method of vaccination, which was invented earlier than homeopathy, is an application of homeopathic principle, though there was no individualization required, because it becomes effective upon antibodies and antigenic receptors, located much downstream in the synthetic pathway, while in homeopathy the target factors are located much upstream. Vaccination is comparable to Isopathy, a sister branch of homeopathy, but homeopathic vaccination is to some extent different from isopathy, because, several other drug materials apart from the pathogen can be used as immunogen.

The modern science of medicine is therefore sometimes stimulatory, sometimes suppressive and sometimes compensatory or supportive method of treatment. It is neither homeopathic, nor allopathic it might be called 'heteropathic'. Such exceptions are included in homeopathy even. Application of 'Mother Tincture' i.e., the crude extract of drug without dilution and potentization, work like allopathic drugs. It is therefore prohibited in homeopathy, but still they are in use.

Even some drugs are there that have been included without 'proving', which are antagonistic to the principle of homeopathy. Palliative treatment, like that of allopathy, is applicable for homeopathy too in some restricted cases. The ultimate moto of all science of medicines is to cure a patient, so that all can work together in a common platform. The following table shows the ultimate differences between homeopathic and allopathic practices: